Colloidal Solution

Colloidal solution is a homogeneous system of two immiscible phases. It means that colloids are now regarded as systems in which there are two or more phases, with one (is called the dispersed phase) distributed in the other (the continuous phase).

There are various types of colloidal solutions. Solution is called a colloidal solution. Solution are of two types:

i. Lyophobic Solution: In these sols there is no affinity between

the dispersed phase and the liquid.

ii. Lyophilic Solution: These are more like true solutions in

which the solute molecules are large and have an

affinity.

Applications of Colloidal Solution:

1. In Medicine: Oral medicines are taken in colloidal form because they are more effective in this state. Colloidal gold, colloidal silver, colloidal calcium, colloidal manganese, etc. are used to increase the vitality of our body. Colloidal sulphur is used as a germicide

2. Cleansing of Clothes: Soaps and detergents are used to clean dirty clothes. They remove dirt by

converting and precipitating them as colloidal particles.

3. Use of Gas Masks: Use of gas masks depends on the absorption property of charcoal.

4. In making of inks, dyes and paints etc. ink, dyes and paints are colloidal substances.

5. Purification of Water: When potash alum is added to muddy water, the colloidal muddy particles get coagulated and they precipitate out and settle down at the bottom making water clean and pure.

6. Smoke Precipitation: Smoke is a colloidal solution of carbon in air. They are charged particles and hence they can be precipitated on charged metal plates.

7. Sewage Disposal: Disposal of sewage is based on

the phenomenon of cataphoresis.

Carbonyl Chemistry

Class XII Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophillic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes: uses.

Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties; uses.

Coordination Compounds

Class XII Unit IX: Coordination Compounds

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding, Werner's theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereo isomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in qualitative inclusion, extraction of metals and biological system).

d and f Block Elements

Class XII Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals - metallic character, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactvity and lanthanoid contraction and its consequences.

Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids

Electrochemistry

Class XII Unit III: Electrochemistry

Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell -electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and emf of a cell, fuel cells, corrosion.

Solid State

Unit I: Solid State

Classification of solids based on different binding forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea). Unit cell in two dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, packing efficiency, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and magnetic properties. 

Band theory of metals, conductors, semiconductors and insulators and n & p type semiconductors.

Hydrogen

Unit IX: Hydrogen

Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen, hydrides-ionic covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen peroxide -preparation, reactions and structure and use; hydrogen as a fuel.

p -Block 13 &14

Unit XI: Some p -Block Elements

General Introduction to p - Block Elements

Group 13 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group, Boron - physical and chemical properties, some important compounds, Borax, Boric acid, Boron Hydrides, Aluminium: Reactions with acids and alkalies, uses.

Group 14 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements. Carbon-catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of Silicon and a few uses: Silicon Tetrachloride, Silicones, Silicates and Zeolites, their uses.

Redox Reaction

Unit VIII: Redox Reaction

Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, in terms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number, applications of redox reactions.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Significance of classification, brief history of the development of periodic table, modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements -atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency. Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100.